To make the study of medical language easier and more meaningful, we'll present many terms within the context of how the body is organized—by body system—and how it functions.
Objectives
In this module, you will learn to:
- Identify the role and recognize examples of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms.
- Demonstrate correct usage of the combining vowel by correctly joining word parts to write medical terms.
- Recognize the importance of spelling medical terms correctly.
- Use the rules learned in this module to write the singular or plural forms of medical terms.
1.1 Ancient Origins
The practice of medicine has evolved throughout the course of many centuries. In western culture, its foundations can be traced to the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. For this reason, most of the medical terms in use today have components that are of Greek or Latin origin.
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1.2 Eponyms
Eponyms, are derived from the name of a person, often a physician or scientist who was first to identify a certain condition or to devise a medical procedure.
The term Heimlich maneuver is an eponym named after the American physician J. H. Heimlich. The Heimlich maneuver is a procedure used to dislodge food from the airway of a person who is choking.
Other examples of eponyms include Potts fracture, Trendelenburg position, Alzheimer disease, Cushing syndrome, and Schiller test.
1.3 Mastering Medical Terminology
To keep pace with the development of new medical procedures and equipment, our medical vocabulary is constantly expanding.
Many of the new medical terms are taken from English, the most widely spoken modern language.
The name of the procedure, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is a medical term drawn from modern English.
Other examples of medical terms taken from English include airplane splint, apple picker's disease, and coin test.
1.4 Abbreviated Terms
When medical terms are long or complex, it is common for a shortened form to be used in much the same way people's given names are shortened to form nicknames.
For example, the abbreviated term Pap test is a shortened form of the eponym Papanicolaou test.
Other examples of medical terms that are short-form abbreviations include stat, a shortened form of the Latin word statim, meaning at once, and lab, short for laboratory.
1.5 Initials and Acronyms
When medical terms consist of several words, it is common to abbreviate them using the first letter of each word. For example, central nervous system is abbreviated CNS, and WBC refers to white blood count.
When the initials used for abbreviations create a word that can be pronounced, the word formed in this way is called an acronym. In the illustration, the abbreviation for adult respiratory distress syndrome could be stated by reading the letters individually or by pronouncing the acronym, which rhymes with guards.
Other examples of medical acronyms include AIDS, the abbreviation for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and rad, a radiation unit derived from radiation absorbed dose.
2.1 Dividing Terms into their Component Parts
The language of medicine can seem pretty overwhelming.
Understanding medical language is not as difficult as it appears at first. Once you've mastered the method of dividing words into their component parts and defining those parts, you'll find it easy to learn and remember the meanings of many medical terms.
To understand the structure of medical language, we must first learn to recognize the component parts of a medical term. As you'll see, most medical terms can be separated into specific elements.
Most medical terms consist of some or all of the following four word parts:
- a word root
- a suffix
- a prefix
- a combining vowel
The word parts are joined to express very specific meanings.
The word root is the main part, or foundation, of the word; it contains the word's essential meaning. Because it forms the core of the word, each medical term contains one or more word roots.
The word root in the accompanying example is nat, which means birth.
2.3 Suffix
The suffix is the word ending.
Attaching a suffix to the end of a word modifies the word's meaning. Suffixes frequently indicate a procedure, a condition, or a disease. Most medical terms have a suffix.
In the accompanying example, the suffix is -logy, which means the study, or science, of.
Note that when suffixes stand alone they are easily identifiable because they are preceded by a hyphen.
2.4 Prefix
The prefix is an element located at the beginning of a term that changes the meaning of the word when attached to the word root.
Prefixes often indicate number, position, direction, time, or negation. Not all medical terms have a prefix.
In our sample term, neo-, which means new, is the prefix.
Note that when prefixes stand alone they are easily identifiable because they are followed by a hyphen.
2.5 Joining Word Parts to Form Meaningful Terms
Now, let's look at how word parts join to form medical terms.
We'll begin by defining the suffix, which we know means study, or science, of.
Next, think about the meaning of the prefix neo-, which we defined as new.
Finally, consider the meaning of the word root nat, which we've identified as birth.
When we combine the word part definitions, we discover that the term neonatology is the branch of medicine—the study or science—specializing in the care and treatment of newborns.
2.6 Combining Vowel
In our example, we identified and defined the prefix, root, and suffix used to build the term neonatology. We also used a fourth word part, the combining vowel.
The combining vowel provides a link between the word root and the suffix. You'll recall that vowels are speech sounds represented by the letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. In medical terms, the combining vowel is usually an o.
To understand the purpose of the combining vowel, suppose we had attempted to construct our sample term without one. When we put the prefix, word root, and suffix together, we get "neonatlogy," which is difficult to pronounce.
Remember that a combining vowel has no meaning of its own; it is used to join word parts to make the pronunciation of a term easier.
2.7 Combining Vowel May Be "o" or "i"
Although o is the most commonly used combining vowel, i is also frequently used to link word parts.
In the first term illustrated, an o is used to join the word root bronch to the suffix -scopy, forming the word bronchoscopy—the process of visually examining the bronchi, the large air passages of the lungs.
In the second term, we've used an i to join the word root bronch to the suffix -al, creating the term bronchial, which means pertaining to the bronchi.
2.8 Combining Vowel May Join Two Word Roots
We've seen how the combining vowel is used to join a word root and a suffix. Although we don't use a combining vowel between a prefix and a word root, we do sometimes use a vowel to link two word roots.
Let's look at an example of that now. The word root thromb means clot. The word root phleb means vein and the suffix -itis means inflammation. When we use the combining vowel to join the word roots thromb and phleb, and then attach the suffix -itis to the end of the second word root, we form the word thrombophlebitis, which means inflammation of a vein due to a blood clot.
3.1 Combining Vowel Rule #1
Learning any new language requires the mastery of certain basic rules. Let's look at two rules that guide the use of combining vowels.
Combining Vowel Rule #1: When connecting a word root and a suffix, a combining vowel is usually not used if the suffix begins with a vowel.
The term cyanosis exemplifies our first guideline for using combining vowels. The word root cyan means blue; the suffix -osis means condition. Notice that when these words are joined to form the term cyanosis—a condition of blue discoloration caused by an inadequate supply of oxygen in the blood—no combining vowel is used. Because the suffix begins with the vowel o, a combining vowel is not needed to aid in pronunciation.
3.2 Combining Vowel Rule #2
Combining Vowel Rule #2: When connecting two word roots, a combining vowel is usually used, even if vowels are present at the junction.
Now let's look at a term in which the combining vowel is used to join two word roots. The word root oste means bone; the root arthr means joint; and, as you'll recall, the suffix -itis means inflammation. Together these word parts form the word osteoarthritis, meaning inflammation of bone and joint.
In this example, the combining vowel o is used to join the word roots oste and arthr, despite the fact that the second word root begins with the vowel a.
3.3 Two Combining Vowels
Some medical terms have no combining vowels, and some terms have more than one.
Let's look at an example of a medical term that contains two combining vowels. The word root electr means electricity. The root cardi means heart. The suffix -graphy means the process of recording. When we use the combining vowel to join the word roots, and then to join the second word root to the suffix, we form the term electrocardiography, which means the process of recording the electrical activity of the heart.
This term demonstrates both roles of combining vowels: to link word roots to each other and to link a word root to a suffix.
3.4 Combining Form
When a word root and a combining vowel are joined, the resulting construction is called a combining form. The combining form is not considered a word part but an association of a word root and a combining vowel.
3.5 Two Styles of Combining Forms
You will notice a difference here between the online program and the textbook. While your textbook separates a combining form's word root from the combining vowel with parentheses, as in the first example, many medical resources separate these word parts with a vertical slash (/), as shown in the second example. These two styles of presentation—therm(o) and therm/o—represent exactly the same thing.
Throughout this program, word roots will be presented together with their combining vowels as combining forms, and the combining vowels will be set off by a vertical slash.
4.1 Step #1
Identifying each word part is the first step in the process that will allow you to figure out the meanings of new and unfamiliar medical terms.
4.2 Divide a Medical Term Into Word Parts
In this illustration you see the term gastroenterology. Let's divide it into its component word parts and separate the parts with vertical slashes.
Gastr is the first word root in the term. It is joined to the second word root, enter, by the combining vowel o. A second combining vowel joins enter to the suffix -logy.
4.3 Step #2
Once the word parts have been separated and identified, the second step is to define the medical term by applying the meaning of each word part in the term.
Let's look again at our example, gastroenterology, to see how this is done.
4.4 Define a Term by Applying Meanings to the Word Parts
Interestingly, to define many medical terms, we begin at the end of the word, with the suffix. After we apply the meaning of the suffix, we then move to the beginning of the word to complete the definition.
Let's try this with the term gastroenterology. As we now know, the suffix -logy means study, or science, of. The combining form gastr/o means stomach and the combining form enter/o means intestines.
By starting with the suffix and moving to the beginning of the term, we discover that gastroenterology means the study of the stomach and the intestines.
4.5 Build a Term Using Word Parts
Now suppose you knew the definition of a condition and wanted to guess what the corresponding medical term might be. You would need to build the medical term by matching word parts to the definition.
For example, let's construct the medical term that corresponds to the definition disease of a gland. We'll start with the suffix -pathy, which means disease, then move to the beginning of the term, selecting the word root aden, which means gland. Using a combining vowel to join the word root to the suffix, we form the term adenopathy, which matches our definition: disease of a gland.
4.6 Exceptions to Word Building
Although you'll find these word building guidelines very helpful, they won't apply in every case. Sometimes you'll encounter a term that's an exception to the rule.
Let's look at the word dyspnea. This term has no word root or combining form at all! It's constructed from the prefix dys-, which means bad, painful, or difficult, and the suffix -pnea, which means breathing. Together these word parts become the term dyspnea, which means difficult breathing.
4.7 One Term, Different Meanings
In most languages, some terms have several different meanings.
Medical terminology is like other languages in this way. For example, the combining form ped/o means both child and foot.
4.8 Different Terms, One Meaning
It is also possible to have several words that share the same meaning. In the example shown here, the combining forms derm/o and cutane/o both mean skin. That's because one of the combining forms, derm/o, uses the Greek word root and the other, cutane/o, uses the Latin root.
Usually Greek roots are used for words pertaining to disease, diagnosis, and treatment, and Latin roots are used for words relating to body structures. It's not important to know whether a form is Greek or Latin, but it's helpful to be aware that more than one form may mean the same thing.
5.1 Adding "s" to Form Plural Term
Now let's discuss ways in which medical terms are made plural.
Sometimes we need only add an "s" to create a plural. Abrasion thus becomes abrasions; laceration becomes lacerations. Notice that in these two words, adding an "s" to make it plural does not create an additional syllable.
5.2 Adding "es" to Form Plural Term
Sometimes adding an "s" is awkward because of the sound made at the end of the word.
When a word ends with "ch," "sh," or "s," we will usually need to add "es." As you can see, this forms an extra syllable. Thus, sinus becomes sinuses, shown here. Similarly, branch becomes branches, and brush becomes brushes.
5.4 Changing "y" to "ies" to Form Plural Term
When a singular noun ends in a "y" that is preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to "i" and add "es."
For example, here you see that capillary becomes capillaries. Allergy becomes allergies.
5.5 Changing "um" to "a" to Form Plural Term
Plurals of other medical terms can be more complicated. For instance, when words end in "um," this ending is changed to an "a" to form the plural.
For example, on the left you see a single bacterium. On the right, there is more than one and the term becomes bacteria because the "um" is changed to an "a."
Similarly, septum becomes septa.
5.7 Changing "us" to "i" to Form Plural Term
When terms ending in "us" are made plural, this ending changes to an "i."
For example, notice that the word bronchus, shown on the left, becomes bronchi when plural.
Similarly, alveolus becomes alveoli.
5.8 Adding "e" to "a" to Form Plural Term
Some words ending in "a" will have an "e" added to make them plural.
Here you can see that one vertebra becomes two or more vertebrae.
Could you also guess that one kneecap, or patella, becomes patellae when both kneecaps are discussed?
5.10 Changing "ix, ex, ax" Endings to Form Plural Term
In medical terms the endings "ix" and "ex" are changed to "ices" when the word is made plural.
Here you can see that appendix becomes appendices. Similarly, cortex would become cortices.
Finally, words ending in "ax," like thorax, end in "aces" when made plural—hence, thorax becomes thoraces.
5.11 Changing "on" to "a" to Form Plural Term
Some medical terms that end in "on" have this ending changed to an "a" instead when they are made plural.
For example, the spermatozoon shown here becomes spermatozoa when there is more than one. Likewise, the plural of protozoon is protozoa.
5.12 Changing "nx" to "nges" to Form Plural Term
Finally, let's look at one more type of plural—medical terms ending in "nx." When these words are made plural, the "nx" is usually changed to "nges."
Here we see phalanx changed into the plural form phalanges.
Module 2
2.15 Threaded Case Study: Adam
Introduction
In this module, you will learn more about the terms associated with the science of medicine and its specialties. You'll become familiar with terms that describe specific fields of medicine and practitioners within those disciplines. You'll also begin to develop an understanding of drug classes and medication administration. Exercises in this module may require you to review the structure of medical terms introduced in Module 1.
Remember that this integrated learning program is intended as a supplement to your text—not as a substitute. Be sure to keep your text available for ready reference.
NOTE: Not all terms presented in your text will appear in
Objectives
In this module, you will learn to:
- Recognize prefixes, suffixes, combining forms, and word roots in medical words.
- Write the meanings of the word parts and use them to build and analyze terms.
- Match medical specialists with the areas in which they specialize.
- Identify the specialty associated with various medical conditions.
- Match health professions presented in this module with their descriptions.
- Spell and pronounce medical terms correctly.
1.1 Threaded Case Study: Adam
Before we delve into the science of medicine and its specialties, let's meet Adam. An excellent student in high school, Adam decided to remain at home after graduation. He is taking some classes at the local community college and spending a bit more time thinking about possible career choices and a major course of study. Adam is drawn to the area of health care occupations but is undecided about which profession best suits his interests and abilities. Let's accompany him while he visits with the college counselor to explore the world of health careers.
1.2 Primitive Healers as Religious Figures
Among peoples in ancient civilizations, illness was often believed to be caused by behavior that violated a religious or cultural taboo. Sickness was seen as the result of a moral failure that offended a deity, so healing was the responsibility of a religious figure who employed rituals to appease the gods.
As stated in Module 1, the modern practice of medicine has evolved throughout the course of many centuries. Its foundations in western culture can be traced to the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations.
1.3 Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine"
Hippocrates, a Greek physician who lived around 400 B.C., is known as the "Father of Medicine." Hippocrates attributed the development of illness to natural, rather than supernatural, causes.
One of his contributions to the practice of medicine was a code of medical ethics, the Hippocratic oath. Today, the ethical standard for physicians is a modified form of the Hippocratic oath.
1.4 Galen, Early Physician and Biologist
Galen, the last of the great physicians of antiquity, lived six centuries after Hippocrates. Although Greek, Galen served as physician to the Roman emperor, Marcus Aurelius. In addition to practicing the art of medicine, Galen was a biologist. You'll recall that, when joined, the word parts bi/o and -logist mean one who specializes in the study of life or living organisms. By studying animals and, later, serving as a physician and surgeon to the gladiators, Galen developed theories about the function of body organs.
With the political and social upheaval that accompanied the collapse of the
1.5 Vesalius, an Early Scientific Anatomist
A scientific approach to medicine is believed by many to have emerged again with the work of Andreas Vesalius, who lived during the sixteenth century. Vesalius was born in
Anatomy, from the prefix ana- and the suffix -tomy, is the science of the structure of the body and the relationship of its parts. Looking to Galen, Vesalius revived the practice of dissection in order to methodically examine and accurately describe the human body. Vesalius recorded his observations in an anatomical atlas. During the Middle Ages, many intellectual and creative developments converged to influence the art and science of medicine.
Great philosophers of that period began to conceive of the human person differently, as a composite of tangible, or physical, and intangible elements. Human physiology, the study of the function and activities within the living body, was approached with a new scientific method that involved the systematic collection of information and the careful testing of ideas.
1.6 Pathology and Diagnosis
A renewed interest in pathology, the study of the causes of diseases and the physical changes that are caused by disease, also occurred during this time. Application of a scientific method to the study of disease involved a rational uncovering of the laws of nature.
Medical diagnosis, the identification of illness, was increasingly based on observable evidence.
1.8 Instruments Contribute to Medical Progress
While doctors developed their understanding of the structure and function of the body, advances in seemingly unrelated fields contributed to medical progress.
The seventeenth century saw the invention of the microscope, which was of great significance in the identification of pathogens, disease-producing organisms, not visible to the naked eye.
Increased skill in the craft of metalworking led to improvements in the quality of surgical instruments. These instruments afforded greater opportunity to explore and understand the body's internal anatomy.
Physicians could then correlate their knowledge of anatomy with the observable signs of illness and not rely solely on symptoms, the patient's subjective report of the experience of illness.
1.9 Three Types of Health Practitioners
During the Middle Ages (1066-1485) and the Renaissance, a period between 1400 and 1600 that saw the rebirth of ancient Greco-Roman philosophies and practices, there were three types of medical practitioners: Trained physicians, who were few in number, held the highest status.
A second group, barber-surgeons, belonged to trade guilds and learned to perform a number of minor procedures—blood letting, for example—by means of apprenticeship. Many barber-surgeons learned techniques such as amputation, the surgical removal of a body part, by serving in the army.
Apothecaries, a third group of health practitioners, made and dispensed medicine according to a physician's prescription.
Midwives and members of religious orders also attended childbirth and provided care for the sick.
1.10 Specialization in Medicine
The nineteenth century saw the beginnings of medical specialties and a number of other important developments. Chemistry began to be studied as a separate science. Germs were identified as a cause of disease. Anesthetics, drugs capable of producing a loss of sensation, were discovered and began to be used during surgical procedures. It was also during the nineteenth century that nursing was established as a profession.
Gradually, the medical profession became more systematized and regulated. Specialization, the division of medicine into distinct branches of expertise, grew in response to advances in medical knowledge, during the twentieth century. The physician who did not specialize provided primary care for all members of the family and was known as a family practitioner, or general practitioner. Today, this type of practice is also a specialty area known as family practice.
Reflecting the evolution of medical practice, today's health care team may consist of any number of surgical and nonsurgical specialty physicians, a specialized nursing staff, and a host of other allied health professionals. In the lessons that follow, we'll learn more about the spectrum of health care professions.
2.1 Threaded Case Study: Adam
In this lesson, we'll look at a number of specific branches of medicine in which physicians may be trained to practice. But first let's see how Adam is progressing. He and the career counselor decided that Adam should complete some written measures of interest and aptitude to help define and narrow his career search. These activities will help to ensure that his abilities match the demands of the professions he's considering. We'll return when he's completed these tasks to see what career options are suggested.
2.2 Biology
Let's review some word parts that we'll encounter as we learn about medical specialties. These word parts are suffixes that will modify the meanings of the word roots to which they are attached.
In the previous lesson, we introduced the suffixes -logy, -logist, and -ist. We saw that when we append the suffix -logy to the combining form bi/o, we form the term biology, the study of living organisms. By adding the suffix -logist to bi/o, we construct the word biologist, meaning one who specializes in the study of living organisms.
2.4 Pediatrics
In this illustration, we see a pediatrician, a physician who specializes in the development, care, and treatment of infants and children. This branch of medicine is known as pediatrics.
Notice that these terms share a combining form ped/o—which in this case means child—and are given their specific meanings by the attached suffixes.
2.6 Hematology
Now let's consider some of the areas of medical specialty.
Anticipating the organization of upcoming modules by body system, we'll group the terms describing medical specialists according to the body system that is the object of their practice.
These illustrations depict a variety of human blood cells. The combining form hemat/o, which means blood, when joined with the suffix -logy, gives us the term hematology, the medical specialty involved with the scientific study of the blood and blood-forming tissues. A physician who specializes in the study of blood and treats blood disorders is known as a hematologist.
2.7 Immunology and Cardiology
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The lymphatic system is another vascular network—separate from, but related to, the cardiovasculature—that helps to maintain the body's internal environment by draining fluid from body tissues and returning it to the blood. The lymphatic system also plays a critical role in providing the body with immunity, protection from disease.
Immunology is the branch of medical science concerned with the body's disease-fighting mechanisms. The specialist who is trained in this field is called an immunologist.
Cardiology is the study of anatomy, normal functions, and disorders of the heart. A cardiologist is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiac disorders.
2.8 Laryngology
As you'll learn in a later module, the respiratory system consists of the lungs and other anatomic structures that are related to breathing. The larynx, which is also called the voice box because it contains the vocal cords, is part of the respiratory system.
Laryngology is the branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the larynx. This medical specialty is practiced by a physician called a laryngologist.
The body cavity in the chest region, or thorax, is called the thoracic cavity. It contains the heart, many of the structures of the respiratory system, and some of the organs of the digestive system, which we'll look at next. A thoracic surgeon is a specialist who uses operative methods to treat injuries, deformities, and diseases of the structures in the thoracic cavity.
2.9 Gastroenterology
The digestive system includes organs, structures, and glands that help us to break down food and prepare it for absorption into the bloodstream. The gastrointestinal tract is the tube through which food passes from the mouth to the anus. The stomach, indicated by the combining form gastr/o, and the intestines, identified by the combining form enter/o, are organs of the digestive system and portions of the gastrointestinal tract.
Gastroenterology, a term that was introduced in Module 1, is the study of diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract. A gastroenterologist is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.
2.10 Urology
The urinary system consists of the organs that are involved in the elimination of wastes by the excretion of urine.
Urology is the branch of medicine concerned with the identification and treatment of disorders of the urinary tract in men and women and of conditions affecting the male reproductive system. It is practiced by a specialist called a urologist.
2.11 Gynecology
The female reproductive system contains the organs and accessory structures that permit the development of new human life.
The combining form gynec/o means woman or female; thus, the term gynecology is defined as the study of diseases of the female reproductive system.
A gynecologist specializes in the study of women's health, including the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the reproductive organs and breasts.
2.12 Obstetrics
During pregnancy and through the process of childbirth, a woman is cared for by a physician known as an obstetrician.
This physician will have received specialized training in obstetrics, the branch of medicine concerned with care during pregnancy, childbirth, and the period immediately after delivery.
2.13 Perinatology and Neonatology
The combining form nat/o means birth. When we add the suffix -al to nat/o, we create the word natal, which means pertaining to birth.
If we place the prefix peri-, meaning around, in front of the word natal, we form perinatal—pertaining to the time and process of giving birth or being born.
Perinatology is the branch of medicine concerned with the care of the mother and her child during pregnancy, childbirth, and the period of approximately 6 weeks following delivery. A perinatologist is a physician who specializes in this field of medical practice.
Neonatology focuses on the care of the infant from birth to 28 days of age. The neonatologist is specially trained to diagnose and treat disorders of the newborn.
2.15 Threaded Case Study: Adam
Adam has reviewed the results of his interest and aptitude assessments with the career counselor. These activities helped to identify his strongest skills and to guide his thinking about how he might apply his abilities in a profession. The tests confirmed that he has good social skills and strength in science and math. These were his best subjects in high school. Adam also has good visual-spatial and manual skills, is well-coordinated, and enjoys playing a variety of sports. He was a camp counselor and works well with children. He is musically talented and plays the guitar. Now that he has more information about his skills, Adam is looking at the educational requirements and demands in areas such as sports medicine, physical therapy, dentistry, nursing, and music therapy.
2.16 Orthopedics
The musculoskeletal system comprises the bones, muscles, joints, and related structures that enable our body parts to move.
Orthopedics is the branch of medicine that studies the prevention and correction of disorders of the musculoskeletal system. An orthopedist is a physician who specializes in this area of study; an orthopedic surgeon is a doctor who is trained to treat problems of the musculoskeletal system by using operative methods. Often physicians who have trained in orthopedics are called on to diagnose and treat athletic injuries.
These terms are derived from orth/o, which means straight, because the original role of the orthopedist was to straighten bones.
2.17 Rheumatology
Connective tissue is that which supports and binds other types of body tissue and parts. Bone is one kind of connective tissue.
Rheumatology is the study of disorders characterized by inflammation and degeneration of connective tissue.
A rheumatologist is the specialist who treats disorders of the connective tissue such as rheumatoid arthritis, shown in the accompanying illustration.
2.18 Neurology and Neurosurgery
The brain, spinal cord, and a vast network of sensory and motor nerves activate, coordinate, and control all functions of the body. Together these structures are referred to as the nervous system.
The word part neur/o is a combining form that means nerve. Neurology is the branch of medicine that focuses on the nervous system and its disorders. A neurologist specializes in the practice of this field of medicine.
Another specialist in the study of the nervous system is the neurosurgeon, who uses operative procedures—neurosurgery—to treat certain diseases and disorders of the brain and spinal cord.
2.19 Otology, Otolaryngology, Otorhinolaryngology
In the previous screen, we noted that the nervous system includes, together with its other structures, a network of sensory nerves. These nerve fibers transmit signals to the brain by which we are able to perceive our environment and respond to changes in it. Our ears and eyes are very specialized sensory organs.
The word part ot/o means ear; thus, the word otology refers to the specialized study of the ear.
An otologist is a physician who is trained in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the ear. Because adjacent structures in the head and neck are often simultaneously involved in a disease process, another branch of medicine, otolaryngology, has broadened its area of specialty to include diagnosis and treatment of both the ear and the throat. The specialty practitioner in this field is called an otolaryngologist.
When the area of specialty includes the ear and throat and also the nose, it is called otorhinolaryngology, and the specialist is called an otorhinolaryngologist.
2.20 Ophthalmology
The special sensory receptors that form the eye help convert light into nerve impulses that enable us to perceive visual images. The combining form ophthalm/o means eye. Ophthalmology is concerned with study of the physiology, anatomy, and pathology of the eye and the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the eye. Individuals who experience visual problems will often visit an ophthalmologist, a physician who specializes in this field.
2.21 Dermatology
The integumentary system consists of the skin and its appendages—the hair, nails, and related glands. The combining forms derm/o and dermat/o mean skin.
Dermatology is the study of the skin, including its anatomic, physiologic, and pathologic characteristics.
A dermatologist is trained to diagnose and treat skin disorders, such as atopic dermatitis, a form of eczema, shown in the illustration.
2.23 Endocrinology
Together with the nervous system, the endocrine system helps to control and regulate body functions.
Endocrine glands, whose locations in the body are shown on the accompanying illustration, secrete special chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones travel through the blood and exert their effects on target organs.
Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine glands and the hormones they produce. Individuals who suffer from endocrine system disorders, such as gigantism, shown in the illustration, may be referred to an endocrinologist, a physician who specializes in treating such conditions.
Treatment of pathologic conditions of the endocrine system may involve the administration of hormones, which is known as endocrinotherapy.
2.24 Internal Medicine
Now let's consider some other types of medical practice with areas of specialty that are not limited to, or defined by, a particular body system.
Internal medicine is a nonsurgical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the internal organs in adults. The practitioner of internal medicine is called an internist. The illustration shows an internist performing a physical examination of a patient's abdomen.
2.25 Gerontology and Geriatrics
You'll remember the term pediatrics from an earlier discussion in this module. This specialty focuses on the development and care of infants and children.
At the opposite end of the age continuum is gerontology. The combining forms geront/o, ger/a, and ger/o all mean old age or the aged; thus, gerontology is the study of all aspects of the aging process.
Geriatrics is the branch of medicine established around the physiologic characteristics of aging and the diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting the aged. The physician who specializes in this field is called a gerontologist.
2.26 Pathology
Earlier in this module, we introduced the term pathology, the study of the causes of disease and changes in body tissues that result from disease.
A pathologist is a physician whose focus is the study of disease. He or she specializes in the microscopic examination of tissue and the evaluation of cellular changes that occur in disease.
Surgical pathology is the analysis of diseased tissue specimens obtained during surgery.
Pathologists also perform autopsy examinations.
2.27 Oncology
Oncology, built from the combining form onc/o, meaning swelling, mass, or tumor, is the branch of medicine involved with the study of the cancerous growths that may occur within any body system. An oncologist is a physician who specializes in the study and treatment of tumors.
Radiation therapy is a staple within the cancer treatment regimen. A physician who specializes in the use of ionizing radiation for therapeutic purposes is called a radiation oncologist.
2.28 Reconstructive Surgery
Plastic surgery involves the restoration, replacement, or alteration of visible body structures by operative procedures. Reconstructive surgery is a type of plastic surgery performed to correct structural defects or to restore tissue or organs destroyed by trauma or disease. An example of reconstructive surgery is shown in the accompanying illustration where the breast is being reconstructed following the surgical removal of cancerous tissue.
Aesthetic or cosmetic surgery refers to a related area of specialty in which operative procedures are used to improve appearance or to diminish the normal effects of aging. Face lifts and "tummy tucks" are examples of cosmetic surgery.
The physicians who specialize in this type of medicine are called plastic or aesthetic surgeons.
2.29 Radiology
Radiology is the branch of medicine that uses electromagnetic radiation and radioactive substances to visualize internal structures for the purpose of diagnosis.
Today, radiologic imaging is an anchor of medical diagnosis, revealing broken bones, structural abnormalities, the locations of foreign objects within the body, and many other manifestations of injury and disease.
A radiologist is a physician who specializes in the use of radiant energy such as x-rays, sound waves, and other imaging technologies for diagnostic purposes.
2.30 Anesthesiology
You'll remember from our overview of medical history that drugs producing a loss of sensation, anesthetics, were first used to alleviate the pain of surgical procedures in the nineteenth century. From this development grew the branch of medicine known as anesthesiology, which is concerned with the relief of pain and the administration of medications to prevent sensation during surgery.
An anesthesiologist is a physician who is trained to use pharmacologic agents to induce a loss of sensation, with or without a loss of consciousness, and to monitor and maintain stability of the patient's vital signs during surgery.
2.31 Preventive Medicine
Some medical specialties are based on the time at which a medical intervention occurs. In preventive medicine, the goals are to increase resistance to disease, to shorten disease duration with early diagnosis and prompt therapy, and to limit the degree of disability caused by disease. Activities that support these goals include health promotion and immunization.
2.32 Emergency Medicine
Emergency medicine is the specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of persons who suffer sudden illness or trauma and require immediate medical care. Heart attacks and serious injuries from motor vehicle accidents are examples of conditions for which emergency room treatment may be sought.
2.34 Histology
Now let's consider some specialties of medical science whose practitioners may or may not be physicians.
Histology, built from the combining form hist/o, which means tissue, is the science that deals with the microscopic identification of cells and tissues.
A histologist specializes in studying the composition of cells and their organization into body tissues.
2.35 Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of the determinants of disease in populations.
In this area of specialization, data are gathered by medical scientists or physicians, called epidemiologists, who look at the incidence, prevalence, spread, prevention, and control of disease or health-related events.
Epidemiology is concerned with diseases caused by infectious agents, as well as with other public health and safety issues such as accidents, suicide, and environmental pollutants.
2.36 Physician Assistant
Before we leave the area of medical practice, let's explore the role of the physician assistant. This health care professional is educated in the medical model and is licensed to practice medicine under the supervision of a physician. Physician assistants take medical histories, perform physical exams, order and interpret lab tests, diagnose and treat illnesses, and prescribe medication.
Although many physician assistants provide primary care in the general practice of medicine, some are trained in specialty areas such as orthopedics, pediatrics, obstetrics, and geriatrics.
3.1 The Spectrum of Health Professions
In the previous lessons, we've seen how medical care has evolved from a limited number of tasks performed by a few semiskilled and skilled providers to an array of services offered by a host of specially trained health care workers.
The multifaceted nature of health care today requires the support of a spectrum of medical professionals. Let's spend some time now learning about those health care occupations. We begin with the dental professions, those concerned with the care of the teeth and their supporting structures.
3.2 Threaded Case Study: Adam
Remember from the last lesson that one of the professions Adam is considering is dentistry. His father is a dentist and Adam has had the opportunity to perform odd jobs in his dad's dental office during summers and after school. This allowed him to develop a sense of what is involved in treating patients and to form an idea about whether he'd enjoy working as a dentist.
Now Adam wants to learn more about dental specialties and other health care occupations. His career counselor has advised him to visit and talk with professionals who perform the jobs in which he is interested.
3.3 Dentistry
When we study the digestive system, you'll learn more about our teeth, which begin the process of converting the food we eat into energy to fuel the body's activities.
Dentistry is the art and science of diagnosing and treating disorders of the teeth and other structures of the oral cavity. The practitioner who qualifies by training to provide this type of care is called a dentist. In the terms dentistry and dentist, you'll notice the word root dent, which means tooth.
Several combining forms, dent/o, dent/i, and odont/o, indicate a reference to tooth or teeth. You'll recognize some of these word parts as we continue to explore this profession.
3.4 Pedodontics
Beyond the practice of general dentistry, dentists may train in a number of specialized areas.
Pedodontics is the field of dentistry devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of dental problems affecting children. The specialist practitioner of this kind of dentistry is a pedodontist.
Try to detect the word parts in these terms that correspond to their definitions.
3.5 Orthodontics
You'll recall the combining form orth/o, which means straight, from a previous lesson.
Orthodontics is a type of specialized dental care concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of malocclusion, abnormal contact between the teeth of the upper and lower jaws, and other dental irregularities.
Orthodontists are practitioners of this dental specialty. They recommend that treatment for problems requiring straightening of teeth and alignment of the jaws should begin at an early age. Increasingly, however, orthodontists treat adults as well as children for correction of dentofacial abnormalities.
3.6 Endodontics
Endodontics is the branch of dentistry that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting the dental pulp and tooth root (see illustration).
The endodontist is specially trained to provide dental care such as root canal therapy, a procedure to save a tooth by removing the contents of its root canal and filling it with a protective substance.
3.7 Oral Surgery
Oral surgery may be required to correct problems involving the teeth and the surrounding oral tissues.
An oral surgeon will perform these procedures, which may include restoration of teeth that have been damaged, reconstruction of facial malformations caused by diseases of the head and neck or traumatic accidents, or surgical removal of teeth and surrounding tissues.
3.8 Gerodontics
Paralleling medical practice, in dentistry we have the pedodontist, who treats dental problems affecting children, and the gerodontist, who specializes in providing dental care to older persons.
Gerodontics, also known as gerodontology, is the study of the dentition and dental needs of the elderly.
3.9 Dental Support Specialties
The practice of dentistry and its specialties is supported by a variety of health professionals.
Dental hygienists provide services that include preventive care, cleaning teeth, radiography, and dental education to patients and to the community.
Dental assistants perform tasks such as chair side aid, clerical work, some radiography, and dental laboratory work.
Dental laboratory technicians make dental appliances according to a dentist's prescription.
4.1 Introduction to Nursing
You'll recall from a previous lesson that nursing was established as a profession during the nineteenth century.
As with medical practice, the history of nursing as a health care occupation describes a long and interesting evolution. From the earliest times and across most cultures, many of the tasks that came to be associated with nursing care were performed in the home by female family members.
Among the first groups to provide health care were the religious nursing orders. As a consequence, nursing care was perceived as a "calling" and became associated with expectations of service and self-sacrifice.
4.2 Nursing in the Middle Ages
As a result of historical events, particularly the Protestant Reformation, the Middle Ages saw a diminished influence of religious orders on nursing care. Providing for the sick was a thankless job in institutions known as hospitals, but popularly referred to as "pest houses." This work fell to whomever would assume it, usually those from the lower tiers of society who often were beset by problems associated with poverty, such as alcoholism.
4.3 Florence
Early attempts at nursing reform were undertaken in
Florence Nightingale, considered the founder of modern nursing, trained briefly at the Fliedners' school. After distinguishing herself as the superintendent of the hospital for women in
4.4 Early Nursing Education
The early twentieth century saw other major developments in nursing and nursing education. Legislation in the
4.5 Modern Nursing
Today, nurses constitute the largest professional group involved in health care. They work in a variety of settings, from hospitals to health insurance companies, and are an indispensable part of the health care system.
Registered nurses complete a course of study at a state-approved school of nursing and must pass a national licensure examination.
Registered nurses with advanced education may become clinical nurse specialists or nurse practitioners, who function with greater responsibility and more independence.
Licensed practical nurses, also called licensed vocational nurses, train in basic nursing techniques and direct patient care and work under the supervision of a registered nurse.
Nurses' aides carry out a variety of basic, nonspecialized tasks under the direction of registered nurses. A brief period of vocational education and on-the-job training provides preparation for these positions
4.6 Threaded Case Study: Adam
Adam's mother is a member of the faculty at a school of nursing. Realizing his interest in this profession, she's talked with Adam at length about the educational requirements, the areas of specialty, and the demands and rewards of working as a nurse. Adam is particularly interested in learning more about the role and duties of a pediatric nurse practitioner. His mom directs him to some of her colleagues for more information about that nursing specialty.
5.1 Physical Therapist
The scope and complexity of health care have given rise to the development of many specialized health-related professions. A variety of health therapists, technologists, technicians, and assistants provide the direct patient care and support services on which our modern system of health care relies. We'll look at a few representative occupations now.
Physical therapy involves the use of manual therapy, therapeutic exercise, and physical modalities such as the application of heat or cold to prevent disability or restore function following illness or injury. The physical therapist can examine, test, and treat physical impairments, using the methods of that discipline, to help improve mobility, balance, circulation, and muscle strength.
5.2 Occupational Therapist
Occupational therapy, another health rehabilitation profession, is concerned with the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of persons whose ability to perform the activities of daily living has been compromised by injury, illness, or aging. The occupational therapist helps guide the selection and use of adaptive equipment and to design and implement activities to enhance functional performance.
5.3 Respiratory Therapist
Other professions with practitioners that may be found in hospital and/or clinic settings include respiratory therapists, those who administer treatment to maintain or improve breathing (see illustration), speech-language therapists, and art and music therapists.
Many of the health therapy professions offer another level of practice, for example, the physical therapy or occupational therapy assistant, whose length of training is of shorter duration and who performs under the supervision of a registered or certified therapist.
5.4 Health Technologists and Technicians
Health technologists and technicians provide an array of services within the medical care setting. For example, medical laboratory technologists and technicians, under the supervision of a physician, perform chemical, bacteriologic, and microscopic tests of blood, tissue, and fluids for diagnostic and research purposes.
Surgical technicians prepare the operating room; ensure the maintenance of a sterile surgical environment; and assemble, adjust, and check operating room equipment.
Under the direction of radiologists, radiologic technologists operate x-ray machines and various types of highly specialized equipment to produce images of the inner structures of the body.
Medical transcriptionists prepare written records of patient data from physicians' reports, and medical records librarians maintain health information systems.
5.5 Emergency Medical Technicians
Earlier in this module we described the specialty of emergency medicine. Persons who become acutely ill and require immediate medical attention often are seen first by emergency medical technicians (EMTs).
These health professionals perform basic life support services and, depending on the level of training, may administer medications as directed by the hospital physician.
Emergency medical technicians transport victims of an acute illness or injury to a medical facility.
5.6 Threaded Case Study: Adam
Adam has taken advantage of a good opportunity to explore a number of health care professions. He visited with practitioners of physical therapy and music therapy and believes that he would like to pursue a career as a physical therapist and work within a children's hospital. He and his counselor will look at 4-year colleges that offer physical therapy programs and will plan a schedule of classes that will transfer into Adam's chosen program
6.1 Pharmacology and Pharmacy
Now let's explore the specialties of pharmacology and pharmacy. Notice that both terms include the combining form pharmac/o, which means drugs or medicine. Pharmacology is the study of the preparation, properties, uses, and actions of drugs. The specialist in this area of study is called a pharmacologist.
Pharmacy is the study of preparing and dispensing drugs. In our discussion of the early history of medicine we described a health practitioner, the apothecary, who made and dispensed medication at the direction of a physician. Today we call this health professional a pharmacist. The pharmacist also consults with other licensed health practitioners about drug choices for specific cases and advises patients about how to take drugs and what effects to expect.
6.2 Pharmaceuticals
As we study the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy, let's consider how the term drug is defined. Any chemical or biological substance used in disease prevention or treatment, or used to benefit a body process or function, is a drug. The sources of drugs are wide and varied.
Drugs are sometimes referred to as pharmaceuticals because the combining form pharmaceut/o is also used to indicate drugs or medicine.
Drugs containing radioactive atoms are called radiopharmaceuticals.
6.3 Drug Names
Drugs are assigned at least two, and often three, different names. For example, every drug has a chemical name, which describes its exact chemical structure. For legal and scientific purposes, the drug is also assigned a generic name that relates, in a more general way, to its chemical composition. Manufacturers distribute and sell drugs under trade names, also called brand names or proprietary names, to distinguish them from competing products.
For example, aspirin is a generic drug name. Its chemical name is acetylsalicylic acid, and one of its trade names is Bayer Aspirin.
6.4 Routes of Drug Administration
Routes of administration are the ways in which drugs are introduced into the body. These methods vary depending on the chemical nature of the drug, its effects, and the needs of the patient.
Drugs may be introduced orally—that is, by mouth—by application to the skin, rectally, by injection, or by inhalation.
Drugs are administered by dose, a measured amount of a medication, and often have more than one dose form; for example, some drugs are available in the form of both liquids and tablets.
6.5 Drug Absorption (animation)
When a drug is administered, it may remain at the site where it is introduced or applied. When drugs exert their effects at the circumscribed site of administration, this is termed a local effect. The application of calamine lotion to stop the itch of poison ivy is an example of a local effect.
Other drugs are absorbed into the bloodstream, transported by the blood, and distributed to the target organ or tissues where the therapeutic effects occur. When drugs act on a number of receptors throughout the body in this way, it is called a systemic effect.
6.6 Drug Classifications
Drugs are organized into classes on the basis of their effects. For example, drugs classified as analgesics, built from the prefix an-, without, and the combining form algesi/o, sensitivity to pain, are formulated to relieve pain. Analgesics range from those possessing mild pain-relieving properties—for example, the aspirin you can purchase at your pharmacy without a prescription—to potent, controlled, narcotic medications used only for the most severe pain.
Other examples of drug classes include antibiotics, for fighting disease-producing organisms; antihypertensives, which help to lower blood pressure; and antihistamines, which are used to treat allergic reactions. These terms use the prefix anti-, meaning against.
6.7 Drug Effects
Sometimes drugs have negative effects, called side effects. Although these effects may be undesirable, they are usually outweighed by the drug's benefits. For example, unwanted sleepiness is a potential side effect of some cough suppressants.
An adverse reaction is a harmful, unintended response to medication. This type of effect may occur because of an individual's unique sensitivity to a drug, as is the case when a patient with an unknown allergy to penicillin experiences a life-threatening reaction in response to receiving that medication.
6.8 Drug Abuse
The powerful effects of many drugs cause them to be objects of abuse and addiction.
Drug abuse is the overuse of a chemical substance for a nontherapeutic effect.
Drug addiction is a condition characterized by an overwhelming desire or craving to continue using a substance because of its particular effect. Addiction is usually accompanied by an increase in the amount of time devoted to procuring the substance, the need to increase the drug dose to achieve the desired effect, a sense that one's well-being depends on using the drug, and continued use despite detrimental consequences.
Alcohol is an example of a commonly abused substance that is addictive for some individuals.
Word Parts
If you've studied the combining forms, suffixes, and prefixes in Chapter 2 of your text, you're now ready for the additional practice you'll receive with word parts in this module. Check your glossary for definitions of all the word parts used in the following exercises. To review construction of medical terms using prefixes, combining forms, and suffixes, return to Module 1. Click Next to continue.
Module 3
Introduction
In this module, you will learn more about the suffixes and terms associated with surgical procedures and diagnostic imaging. You'll become familiar with terms that describe specific surgical procedures and diagnostic imaging methods. Exercises in this module may require you to review the structure of medical terms introduced in Module 1.
Remember that this integrated learning program is intended as a supplement to your text—not as a substitute. Be sure to keep your text available for ready reference.
NOTE: Not all terms presented in your text will appear in this module. Some terms in this module may not appear in your text.
Objectives
In this module, you will learn to:
- Match suffixes with their meanings.
- Recognize combining forms for selected body structures in terms.
- Write the meanings of the word parts and use them to build and analyze terms.
- Recognize several types of diagnostic imaging procedures.
- Spell medical terms accurately.
- Write the meaning of abbreviations.
- Pronounce medical terms correctly.
1.1 -scope
Using fiber-optic devices called endoscopes, physicians can directly view structures within the body. The prefix endo- means within, and the suffix -scope means to view. The term endoscope is somewhat unusual because it has no combining form.
Some endoscopes incorporate special devices that allow the physician to also perform other procedures during the visual examination. For example, a tiny cutting tool that is part of some endoscopes enables the surgeon to remove small amounts of tissue for later study during the process of the visual examination.
Various types of endoscopes are used for specific purposes. For example, the combining form bronch/o refers to the air passages within the lungs. Therefore, a bronchoscope is an instrument that enables a physician to examine the bronchi.
Can you guess the purpose of a gastroscope?
1.2 -scopy
If you remembered from Module 2 that physicians who specialize in examination of the stomach and intestines are called gastroenterologists, then you probably guessed correctly that a gastroscope is an instrument to visually examine the stomach.
The suffix -scopy refers to the process or procedure of viewing. Endoscopy means the procedure of viewing within. The terms gastroscopy and bronchoscopy use this ending to indicate fiber-optic examinations of the stomach and of the bronchi, respectively.
When -scopy is paired with the combining form lapar/o, meaning abdominal cavity or abdominal wall, the resulting term is laparoscopy, meaning visual examination of the inside of the abdominal cavity.
1.3 Threaded Case Study: George
In this module, we will follow the experience of George, whose father died of colon cancer (cancer of the large intestine) at the age of 59. George is now 58, and his wife has encouraged her husband to see Dr. Rahaman in the hope that George will be reassured that he has nothing to worry about.
Dr. Rahaman did a routine physical examination on George and found that he was, indeed, in quite good health. In view of the family history of colon cancer, however, Dr. Rahaman said that George was right to be concerned about his risk of this disease. He suggested that George see Dr. McPherson, a gastroenterologist, for further examination of his colon using a special endoscope.
1.4 -tome
Illustrated here is a dermatome, a surgical instrument to remove skin for a skin graft. You will recall that the combining form dermat/o means skin. The suffix -tome indicates a surgical instrument that is used to cut.
A craniotome is a special surgical instrument used to cut into the bones of the skull, the cranium.
1.5 -tomy
An incision is a surgical cut. The suffix -tomy means to cut into or incise. Surgical procedures that involve cutting into often have this ending.
This illustration shows diagrams of a craniotomy, an incision into a bone of the skull. Craniotomy procedures are surgical methods used to relieve pressure within the skull and to remove brain tumors.
The combining form thorac/o means chest; therefore, an incision into the thorax or chest is called a thoracotomy.
1.6 -stomy
The patient pictured here has had a tracheostomy, a procedure to make an opening in the windpipe, the trachea. This is commonly done to facilitate breathing, especially when a patient's respiration must be assisted by a ventilator for a long period of time.
In the term tracheostomy, the suffix -stomy means to create an opening and comes from the Latin word stoma, meaning mouth.
The patient pictured here has had a tracheostomy, a procedure to make an opening in the windpipe, the trachea. This is commonly done to facilitate breathing, especially when a patient's respiration must be assisted by a ventilator for a long period of time.
In the term tracheostomy, the suffix -stomy means to create an opening and comes from the Latin word stoma, meaning mouth.
1.7 -centesis
The suffix -centesis refers to a specific kind of surgical incision; it means a surgical puncture to remove fluid. A thoracocentesis is illustrated here. This surgical procedure involves cutting into the chest to place a tube for the removal of fluid.
1.9 -tripsy
At one time, stones in the urinary tract or the gallbladder required major surgery. In recent years, however, several different methods have been devised to crush the stones using less invasive procedures.
Pictured here is a machine used for extracorporeal (outside the body) shockwave lithotripsy, a noninvasive procedure to crush stones within the body. The suffix -tripsy means to crush, and the combining form lith/o means stone or calculus.
1.10 -lysis
The suffix -lysis means to break down or to destroy. It is used to create medical and surgical terms that refer to the destruction of a structure or tissue.
Thrombolysis is the destruction of a blood clot. The combining form thromb/o means clot.
In Module 2 you learned that hemat/o is a combining form meaning blood. Another combining form that means blood is hem/o. Therefore, hemolysis refers to the destruction of blood cells, as the illustration demonstrates in sickling of the red blood cells. Irreversible sickling of red blood cells produces a chronic hemolytic anemia.
1.11 -rrhaphy
The preceding suffixes -tripsy and -lysis refer to surgical procedures that involve destruction. Let's now consider some suffixes that are related to construction or repair.
The suffix -rrhaphy means to suture, to close an opening using surgical stitches.
Illustrated here is the surgical procedure called a herniorrhaphy, the surgical repair of a hernia using sutures. A hernia is a protrusion of a portion of an organ through an abnormal opening in the muscle wall of the surrounding cavity—in this case, the abdomen.
1.12 -pexy
The suffix -pexy means to anchor or to secure in place. For example, the procedure shown here is called a sacral hysteropexy, a surgical repair that secures the vagina in its proper position when it has undergone prolapse, a condition of sinking or falling down.
1.13 -plasty
This illustration shows the result of the procedure called a pyloroplasty, a surgical repair of the pylorus, the portion of the stomach that empties into the small intestine. When the opening from the stomach is too small, this procedure widens the passage so that food can pass more readily.
Pyloroplasty is built with the suffix -plasty, which means to repair, and the combining form pylor/o, which indicates the pylorus.
Another term with this suffix is blepharoplasty, a surgical repair of the eyelid. The combining form for eyelid is blephar/o.
1.14 -ectomy
To excise is to remove surgically. The suffix -ectomy means excision, the surgical removal of. This suffix is often incorporated into the names of surgical procedures that involve removal of a particular tissue or organ.
The combining forms append/o and appendic/o refer to the appendix. Thus, appendectomy is the term for the surgical removal of the appendix, illustrated here.
1.16 Using -plasty, -ectomy
Now we will continue practicing these suffixes while learning some additional combining forms that pertain to specific body structures.
There are two combining forms that refer to the breast: mamm/o and mast/o. The patient in this illustration has recently undergone breast reduction mammoplasty, or breast repair; in this case, a procedure to reduce the size of the breasts.
When the entire breast is removed, the procedure is called a mastectomy. The usual reason for a mastectomy is breast cancer. Sometimes, when a breast tumor is discovered while it is still quite small, the tumor is excised but the remainder of the breast is not removed; this procedure is called a lumpectomy.
1.17 Using -pexy
The combining forms that refer to the kidney are nephr/o and ren/o.
You will recall that -pexy refers to a fixation procedure that secures a structure in position, so it should be no surprise that the procedure to anchor a kidney in position is called nephropexy.
When a kidney is excised, the surgery is called a nephrectomy.
1.18 Using -ectomy
The combining form aden/o means gland. It can refer to any gland in the body but is often used in reference to lymph glands, also called lymph nodes.
This screen illustrates an adenectomy, a procedure to remove a lymph gland. It is sometimes performed to detect the spread of cancer, which travels from its primary location to other parts of the body by way of the lymphatic system.
The combining form tonsill/o means tonsil or tonsils, so a tonsillectomy is a surgical procedure to remove the tonsils. It is one specific type of adenectomy.
1.20 Using -tomy
The combining form oste/o means bone. You will recall that -tomy is a suffix that means to incise or cut into. Combined, these word parts form osteotomy, a procedure that involves cutting into bone.
Bernard Heine invented the first osteotome (an instrument used for performing an osteotomy), a forerunner of the modern chain saw, in the late 19th century to speed up the process of sawing through bone. The modern set (illustrated here) is a flexible system that has interchangeable parts for specific purposes.
1.21 Using -plasty
The combining form for hand is chir/o. You will recall that the suffix meaning surgical repair is -plasty. Thus, chiroplasty means surgical repair of the hand.
1.23 Using -scopy
There are two combining forms that signify the colon, the large intestine: col/o and colon/o.
If you recall that -scopy refers to the process of viewing, you will understand that both coloscopy and colonoscopy are terms used to refer to the procedure for viewing the inner surfaces of the colon.
1.24 Using -stomy
A colectomy is the surgical removal of the colon or a portion of the colon. This may be necessary because of cancer or other disease.
Sometimes a colectomy also requires a colostomy, the creation of an artificial opening from the colon to the outside of the body, seen in the accompanying illustration.
1.25 Threaded Case Study: George
On George's first visit, Dr. McPherson explained the colonoscopy procedure. George would need to prepare for the study by limiting his diet to liquids for 24 hours and taking a laxative on the evening before his appointment. Dr. McPherson assured George that he would be sedated during the colonoscopy and would not experience any pain. He told George to have his wife come with him so that she could drive him home while he was still under the influence of the sedation.
When George awakened from the sedation, Dr. McPherson told him that he had found two very small polyps in George's descending colon. Polyps are small tumors that grow from mucous membranes. They are not usually cancerous but can become cancerous. Dr. McPherson had removed the polyps using the colonoscope; that is, he had performed a polypectomy. The tissue Dr. McPherson removed was sent to the surgical pathology laboratory for examination.
1.27 Vasectomy
The combining form vas/o has two meanings. It can refer to a vessel and also to the ductus deferens. The ductus deferens is also called vas deferens and is the excretory duct of the testicle.
Illustrated here is the procedure called a vasectomy, cutting of the ductus deferens to cause sterility, usually as a birth control measure.
Another combining form that means vessel is angi/o. Since -plasty means surgical repair, angioplasty means repair of a blood vessel.
The term vasoplasty could mean repair of a blood vessel or repair of the ductus deferens but is more commonly used in the latter sense; i.e., repair of the ductus deferens.
1.28 Using -tomy, -itis
The combining form encephal/o means brain. Another combining form, cerebr/o, also means brain and is sometimes used specifically to refer to the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain.
When cerebr/o is combined with the suffix -tomy, the resulting term means incision into the brain, or cerebrotomy.
The suffix for inflammation is -itis; thus, encephalitis means inflammation of the brain.
2.1 -algia, -dynia
More suffixes are introduced in this lesson. These word parts pertain to diagnosis and often refer to signs or symptoms.
Two suffixes mean pain: -algia and -dynia. Myalgia means muscle pain because my/o is the combining form for muscle. Arthralgia refers to any pain in the joints.
Remembering that the combining form for eye is ophthalm/o, you can create ophthalmodynia, the term for eye pain.
You will recall that the combining form gastr/o means stomach. Gastralgia and gastrodynia both mean stomach pain or stomachache.
2.2 -spasm
The suffix -spasm means twitching or cramp. This occurs when there is a sudden, involuntary contraction of muscle. Spasm is also used as a stand-alone term. The meaning is the same.
Perhaps you recall from a previous lesson that bronch/o refers to the air passages in the lungs. The term bronchospasm refers to a sudden constriction of the air passages of the lungs. Bronchospasm causes coughing and difficult breathing and is a clinical feature of asthma.
2.3 -ectasia, -ectasis
The suffixes -ectasia and -ectasis mean dilatation, also called dilation. These terms refer to enlargement or stretching of a structure or part.
When these passages are dilated, the name for this condition is bronchiectasis, shown in the illustration.
2.4 -stasis
In this illustration, compression (a tourniquet) is being used to provide hemostasis, control of bleeding. Hemostasis is an important part of any surgical procedure.
The suffix -stasis means stopping or controlling, and you will recall from the previous lesson that hem/o means blood.
2.5 -penia, -malacia
The suffix -penia means deficiency or lack of. Recall that the combining form oste/o means bone. Illustrated here is osteopenia, lack of bone substance. It is another term for osteoporosis or pre-osteoporosis.
Calcipenia refers to a deficiency of calcium in the blood.
The suffix -malacia means soft or softening of. Therefore, osteomalacia refers to softening of the bone.
2.7 -edema, -emesis
The suffix -edema means swelling, as does the term edema. Swelling is caused by the collection of excess fluid in the tissues as a result of inflammation, the body's response to disease or injury.
Myxedema is a waxy swelling of the hands, face, and feet that is a characteristic of hypothyroidism (as seen in the illustration).
Another suffix that is also a complete term when it stands alone is -emesis (emesis), which means vomit, vomiting, or to vomit.
Hematemesis combines this suffix with a combining form for blood, hemat/o, to form a term that means blood in the vomit.
2.8 -megaly
The line drawn on this patient's abdomen indicates the lower margin of his liver, which is greatly enlarged. This condition is called hepatomegaly and is sometimes caused by alcoholism. The term is built from the suffix -megaly, which means enlargement, and the combining form for liver, hepat/o.
Other terms with this suffix include splenomegaly, enlargement of the spleen, and acromegaly, a disease of the pituitary gland that causes enlargement of the extremities (arms and legs).
2.9 -oid
The suffix -oid means like or resembling. For example, when -oid is coupled with the combining form derm/o, meaning skin, the resulting term, dermoid, means skin-like or resembling skin.
A dermoid cyst, illustrated here, is a sac-like structure containing a collection of tissue that is made up of embryological cells of the same type as skin. Dermoid cysts are most commonly found in the brain, the spinal cord, or an ovary.
2.10 -rrhexis, -rrhea, -rrhagia (-rrhage)
There are three common suffixes that begin with "rr": -rrhexis, -rrhea, and -rrhagia or -rrhage.
The first, -rrhexis, means rupture. Gastrorrhexis is rupture of the stomach.
The suffix -rrhea means discharge. Leukorrhea means white discharge, a common vaginal condition. The combining form leuk/o means white.
Finally, -rrhagia and -rrhage refer to excessive bleeding or hemorrhage. Hemorrhage literally means bleeding of blood. Menorrhagia is the term for excessive menstrual flow.
2.12 -graphy, -graph
Earlier in this module you learned the suffixes -scope and -scopy, two suffixes that pertain to instruments and procedures for viewing, usually for diagnostic purposes. Now we will consider suffixes that pertain to images and graphs for diagnostic purposes.
The suffix -graphy refers to the process of making a diagnostic image, graph, or tracing This screen illustrates electroencephalography, the process of making a tracing of the electrical waves emitted by the brain. The combining form electr/o means electricity or electrical, and you will recall that encephal/o means brain.
The suffix -graph usually refers to the equipment used to produce the image or tracing (electroencephalograph).
2.13 -gram
This illustration shows an electroencephalogram, the brain wave tracing made by an electroencephalograph. From this term you can see that the image, graph, or tracing is indicated by the suffix -gram. The abbreviation for electroencephalogram is EEG.
If you recall that a cardiologist is a heart specialist, you will not be surprised to learn that the combining form for heart is cardi/o. Can you guess the term for a tracing of the electrical activity of the heart?
2.14 Using -gram
You were right if you guessed that an electrocardiogram is a tracing of the electrical activity of the heart.
The abbreviation for electrocardiogram may be either ECG or EKG.
The tracing illustrated here is an example of an ECG.
2.15 Using -graphy
The combining forms son/o and ech/o mean sound. Sonography and echography are terms for the process of making diagnostic images using sound waves.
The prefix ultra- means beyond or excess. The term ultrasound refers to sound waves that are beyond the range of the human ear. Diagnostic ultrasound is another term for sonography. An image made using sound waves, such as the one shown here, is called a sonogram.
Examination of the heart using ultrasound is called echocardiography.
2.16 Using -graph, -graphy
You will recall that a physician who specializes in the diagnostic use of radiation is called a radiologist.
The combining form for radiant energy such as x-rays is radi/o. Therefore, the process of making an x-ray image, as illustrated here, is called radiography, and the person who makes the image is called a radiographer.
Despite what you learned about the suffixes -graph and -gram in the previous screens, an x-ray image is always called a radiograph rather than a radiogram. The most common radiograph is the chest x-ray, abbreviated CXR
.
2.17 Using -scope, -scopy
The equipment illustrated here is a fluoroscope, a special type of x-ray machine that enables the radiologist to view the x-ray image in motion in real time. The process of using the fluoroscope is called fluoroscopy.
You'll recall that the suffix -scope refers to an instrument for viewing. The combining form fluor/o means luminous, or emitting light. Early fluoroscopes consisted of a light-emitting plate that glowed in the dark and made the x-ray image visible. Today, this image is magnified and brightened electronically and displayed on a monitor screen.
There are many uses for fluoroscopy, but one of the common applications is for examinations of the gastrointestinal tract, or GI tract. An upper GI series is an examination of the esophagus, stomach, and the first portion of the small intestine. A lower GI series is a fluoroscopic examination of the colon.
2.19 Tomography
If you recall that -tomy means to cut into and -tome refers to a cutting instrument, it will be easy for you to remember that the combining form tom/o means to cut.
Tomography is the process of making images in a selected body plane that appear to be "cuts" or slices of the body. This cross-sectional image is called a tomogram.
Most tomography today is done using computerized equipment, and the process is called a computed tomography, or CT scan; you may also hear CAT scan, which has the same meaning and stands for computerized axial tomography.
2.20 Imaging Abbreviation
In Module 1, you learned that magnetic resonance imaging is a term from modern English and does not have word parts based in Greek or Latin. This imaging technique involves a highly sophisticated computer system to make images of soft tissues and bones using a strong magnetic field and pulses of radio waves. The abbreviation for this imaging method is MRI.
2.21 Abbreviations Used in Reports
Before we conclude this lesson, let's learn a few more common medical abbreviations used in charting and physicians' reports.
You will recall from Module 1 that lab is the abbreviation for laboratory, usually referring in medical terms to the clinical laboratory or the surgical pathology laboratory.
A symptom, the subjective indication of a disease or a change in condition as perceived by the patient, is abbreviated sx.
Diagnosis, the specific identification of a disease or condition, is abbreviated dx.
Finally, WNL stands for within normal limits. It is a short method of indicating that nothing abnormal was found during a test or examination.
2.22 Threaded Case Study: George
George and his wife have returned to Dr. Rahaman's office for the report of findings, the news about the results of his colon examination.
Dr. McPherson's report of the colonoscopy states that the study was WNL with the exception of the two polyps that were removed. Fortunately for George, the surgical lab report shows that the polyps were benign (not cancerous).
George has had no negative effects from the procedure. In view of the findings and George's history, Dr. Rahaman advises him to have a colonoscopy every 5 years.
Word Parts
If you've studied the combining forms, suffixes, and prefixes in your text, you're now ready for the additional practice you'll receive with suffixes pertaining to surgical and diagnostic terms. Check your glossary for definitions of all the word parts used in the following exercises. To review construction of medical terms using prefixes, combining forms, and suffixes, return to Module 1. Click Next to continue.
Module 4
Introduction
In this module, you will learn about the terms associated with diseases and disorders. You'll become familiar with some word parts, especially suffixes, which have many applications and will help you as you continue your study of medical language.
Exercises in this module may require you to review the structure of medical terms introduced in Module 1.
Remember that this integrated learning program is intended as a supplement to your text—not as a substitute. Be sure to keep your text available for ready reference.
Objectives
In this module, you will learn to:
- Match suffixes pertaining to pathologies with their meanings.
- Match the combining forms that describe color with their meanings.
- Write the meanings of word parts and use them to build and analyze terms.
- Recognize several terms associated with treatment of diseases and disorders.
1.1 path/o, -pathy, -logy
In this lesson, you will begin learning terms and word parts that will help you understand and communicate about diseases and disorders and about their treatments.
In Module 2, you learned that pathology means the study of disease and that it is the branch of medicine concerned with the essential nature of disease, particularly the functional and structural changes in organs and tissues of the body that cause, or are caused by, disease.
The term pathology is built from -logy, meaning the study of, and the combining form path/o, which means disease. Pathology also has a second meaning: the functional and structural manifestations of disease. In this sense it is often used as a synonym for disease or disorder. For example, it would be correct to say, "Cirrhosis is one type of liver pathology."
The suffix -pathy denotes disease. For example, neuropathy is a general term for any disease of the nervous system. The suffix -pathy can also be used to indicate a feeling or a regimen of treatment
for a disease. Consider the meanings of -pathy in the following terms that are probably familiar to you: sympathy (feeling) and homeopathy (a regimen of treatment for a disease that involves tiny non-toxic quantities of selected substances).
1.2 -ia, -iasis, -osis, -ism
Now let's consider suffixes that are used to denote condition. Which one is used in any given situation is largely a matter of convention, so you will learn by experience which to use when putting terms together. On the other hand, learning them now will assist you in understanding new terms as you encounter them.
First, consider -ia as in pneumonia, which literally means lung condition and refers to the lung condition illustrated in the accompanying radiograph.
Next is -iasis, found in the term lithiasis, which means the condition of having stones or calculi.
The suffix -osis is the word part that indicates condition in the term thrombosis, the condition of having a clot.
Finally, -ism can refer to a condition, as in rheumatism, the term for a variety of degenerative, inflammatory disorders of the joints, muscles, or ligaments that are characterized by pain, stiffness, and limitation of movement. Note that -ism can also refer to a theory. For example, holism is the theory of health care that relates to the concept of the human being as a functioning whole.
1.3 -emia
This photomicrograph of a blood smear illustrates the condition called polycythemia, which literally means blood condition of many/excessive cells. The number of red blood cells is excessive and crowded on this smear.
The suffix -emia means condition of blood. Another term with this suffix is septicemia, a condition of infection in the blood.
1.4 -ptosis
You will recall from Module 3 that the combining form blephar/o means eyelid. The suffix -ptosis denotes the condition of drooping, sagging, or prolapse. When combined, these word parts form blepharoptosis, which means drooping eyelid, the condition seen in this illustration. Compare the difference between the upper eyelids of this patient. The left lid sags compared to the right lid and is beginning to interfere with her vision.
Did you remember that the procedure for correcting this condition is called blepharoplasty?
Abdominal organs sometimes begin to sag from their normal positions. When this occurs with a kidney, the condition is called nephroptosis. In the case of the uterus, prolapse is called hysteroptosis.
1.5 -cele
Perhaps you remember from Module 3 that a hernia is a protrusion of an organ or tissue through an abnormal opening in the muscle wall of the surrounding cavity. The suffix -cele means herniation or denotes a relationship to a hernia.
This suffix is usually preceded by a combining form that indicates the anatomic structure that is protruding. For example, a rectocele is a protrusion of the rectum, or a portion of it, through the pelvic wall; a cystocele is a protrusion of the urinary bladder. An omphalocele is another term for the condition called an umbilical hernia. It is a protrusion of a portion of the small intestine through the abdominal wall at the navel.
1.7 -lith, chol/e
Earlier you learned that lithiasis is the condition of having a stone or calculus. You may recall from Module 3 that one treatment for lithiasis is lithotripsy, or crushing of the stone. In both cases, -lith is the word root meaning stone, but -lith also serves as a suffix to denote a stone or calculus.
A ureterolith is the medical term for a stone in a ureter, the tube connecting the kidney to the bladder. Chol/e is the combining form for bile or the biliary system, so the term cholelith refers to a gallstone.
What do you think might be the medical term for a kidney stone?
1.8 -itis
If you guessed that nephrolith is the term for kidney stone, you are correct!
In Module 2, you learned that rhin/o is the combining form for nose. The patient pictured here is suffering from rhinitis, inflammation of the nose, and possibly also sinusitis, inflammation of the sinuses that surround the nasal cavity. From this it is apparent that the suffix -itis means inflammation.
Inflammation is the body's response to disease and injury. The classic signs of inflammation are redness, swelling, warmth, and pain, often cited in Latin as "rubor, tumor, calor, and dolor."
Since there are many causes of inflammation and many possible manifestations of it in the body, there are many medical terms for specific conditions that end with this suffix, including appendicitis and tonsillitis. Can you think of any others?
1.9 onc/o, -oma, lip/o
As you may have noted in the previous screen, tumor is the Latin word for swelling. When we use the term in English it may have the same meaning, but more often it refers to a new growth of tissue, often characterized by uncontrolled, progressive multiplication of cells. Another term for tumor is neoplasm, which means new growth.
The combining form for tumor is onc/o. You will recall from Module 2 that oncology is the study of tumors and an oncologist is a specialist in the treatment of tumors.
The suffix that means tumor is -oma. This suffix is usually paired with a combining form that indicates the type of tissue that constitutes the new growth. For example, the lipoma illustrated here is a tumor made up of fatty tissue. The combining form for fat is lip/o.
You will recall that the combining form for nerve or the nervous system is neur/o. Can you build a term that means a tumor made up of nerve tissue?
1.10 carcin/o, cancer/o
If you formed neuroma as a term that means a tumor made up of nerve tissue, you are right!
You have just learned that a tumor may be characterized by uncontrolled, progressive multiplication of cells. When growth is uncontrolled, getting progressively worse, and especially when it spreads to other sites in the body, the tumor is said to be malignant. A tumor that is not malignant is said to be benign.
A malignant tumor is called a cancer, which is the Latin word for crab. Malignant tumors are called cancers because they tend to infiltrate, to extend into the surrounding tissues like the legs and claws of a crab, whereas benign tumors tend to be encapsulated and have smooth edges.
The combining forms for cancer are carcin/o and cancer/o. Therefore, a carcinoma is a malignant tumor, and cancerous means pertaining to cancer.
1.11 pyr/o, -mania, -maniac
Not all pathologies affect the body; some are disorders of the mind. The suffix -mania denotes a type of mental disorder that is characterized by excessive preoccupation with a particular idea or activity. The combining form used with this suffix indicates the idea or activity that is the focus of the obsession. For example, pyr/o is the combining form for fire, and pyromania is an excessive preoccupation with watching or setting fires.
Another example is megalomania, an abnormal mental state characterized by an unreasonable belief in one's own goodness, greatness, or power (delusions of grandeur). The suffix -maniac denotes one who shows such an excessive preoccupation. Thus, a person afflicted by megalomania could be described as a megalomaniac and one with pyromania as a pyromaniac.
1.12 -phobia
Another suffix that denotes a mental condition is -phobia, which means fear and refers to a persistent, irrational, and abnormal fear.
Arachnophobia, for example, is a fear of spiders. Agoraphobia is a fear of open spaces or public places. It is based on the Greek word agora, which means marketplace.
The opposite of agoraphobia is claustrophobia, a fear of enclosed spaces or of being trapped in a small space.
The word hydrophobia is the old term for the disease now called rabies. This term was derived from the Greek words for water and fear and literally means fear of water. Hydrophobia was so named because animals afflicted with this disease avoided water and were thought to fear it. In truth, they were unable to swallow.
1.13 Discussion Board
Use the Internet to research the many types of phobias. You will find extensive lists at Indian Child and The Indexed Phobia List. Some are serious clinical conditions. Some are humorous. Some, such as arithmophobia (fear of arithmetic), may seem to apply in some degree to you or to your friends! Share your favorites in the Discussion Board titled "Phobias."
2.1 -iac
Now we will consider a few additional suffixes. Some are related to pathology and others are more general in their meanings.
The suffix -iac denotes one who suffers. You are probably familiar with some terms that have this ending. For instance, an insomniac is one who suffers from insomnia, or lack of sleep, and a hemophiliac is one who suffers from hemophilia, a blood disease.
2.2 -eum, -ium
A membrane is a pliable sheet of tissue that covers, lines, or connects organs or cells. Two suffixes denote membrane: -eum and -ium.
The peritoneum is the membrane that lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities and covers the organs within these cavities.
The pericardium is the membrane surrounding the heart, and the endometrium lines the uterus.
2.3 -al
Many suffixes mean pertaining to and are used to show a relationship to the subject of the combining form. This is common in conversational English as well as in medical language.
To understand how this works, note the uses of the suffix -al in the preceding paragraph. The type of English mentioned pertains to that used in conversation, and the type of language pertains to medicine.
This suffix has the same meaning in medical terms. For instance, renal means pertaining to the kidney, and intestinal means pertaining to the intestine.
2.4 -ary, -eal
Two more suffixes that mean pertaining to are -ary and -eal. Practice and experience will help you learn which is appropriate in specific cases.
For example, biliary means pertaining to bile, and mammary means pertaining to the breast.
Periton/o is the combining form that denotes the peritoneum. Therefore, peritoneal means pertaining to the peritoneum.
If you are familiar with parts of speech, you will recognize that these suffixes are used to change nouns into adjectives, words that modify nouns.
2.5 -ive, -tic
Two additional suffixes that mean pertaining to are -ive and -tic.
The term tardive contains the suffix -ive and means delayed, or literally, pertaining to tardiness.
The suffix -tic, seen in the term paralytic, means pertaining to paralysis. In the term sclerotic, the suffix -tic means pertaining to hardening.
2.6 -ous
Earlier in this module you learned that cancerous means pertaining to cancer.
Although it wasn't emphasized, you may have noted that the suffix -ous in cancerous means pertaining to or characterized by.
Other examples of this suffix are seen in the terms venous, pertaining to a vein; sclerous, pertaining to the sclera, the tough white membrane of the eye; and porous, characterized by pores or small openings.
2.8 -opia
The suffix -opia means pertaining to vision.
Myopia is nearsightedness, a condition in which the patient is unable to see normally at a distance. This is caused by a refraction error in which light rays are brought to focus in front of the retina, the focal area at the back of the eyeball. This occurs because the eyeball is too long from front to back.
The opposite of myopia is hyperopia or farsightedness, a vision defect that prevents focus at close range. This refraction error results when light rays entering the eye are brought into focus behind the retina because the eyeball is too short from front to back.
Presbyopia is a type of farsightedness and impaired vision that occurs with advancing age, starting between the ages of 40 and 45. This condition results from a loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye.
2.9 -ose
The suffix that means sugar is -ose. It may be paired with a combining form that indicates the source of the sugar or the chemical type.
For example, since lact/o is the combining form meaning milk, lactose means milk sugar, or the sugar that is found in milk.
Fructose is the sugar found in honey and some fruits. Table sugar is derived from sugar cane or sugar beets and its medical and chemical name is sucrose.
Glucose is a simple sugar that occurs naturally in certain plants (especially fruits) and in the normal blood of all animals. It is produced in the body by the metabolism of starches and more complex sugars.
2.10 -ase
An enzyme is a protein molecule that catalyzes chemical reactions in other substances. This means that it causes the reactions to take place without being destroyed or altered by those reactions. Enzymes produced in the digestive system catalyze the breakdown of substances in food so that our bodies can make use of them. The suffix that means enzyme is -ase.
You will recall that lip/o is the combining form for fat. Lipase is the enzyme produced in the digestive system to aid in the decomposition of fats. Likewise, proteinase participates in the breakdown of proteins.
Lactase is the enzyme that helps to metabolize lactose. While not all sugars have corresponding enzymes with similar names, it is clear from this example that one letter can make a big difference in the meaning of a term. So be especially careful in how you write and spell the terms for sugars and for enzymes.
3.1 cyt/o, -cyte
In this lesson, you will learn combining forms that are related to one or more suffixes. In some cases you will have encountered one of these word parts in a previous lesson. It will be especially clear to you how knowledge of one word part can expand your medical vocabulary beyond the scope of just one term.
The combining form cyt/o and the suffix -cyte are the first examples of these related word parts. Both mean cell.
The study of cells is the field of cytology. A leukocyte is a white blood cell.
Watch for these word parts to show up in new terms as you progress through this module.
3.2 gen/o, -genesis, -genic
The combining form gen/o means beginning or origin. The term genital means pertaining to reproduction or generation, that is, a beginning of life.
Two suffixes related to this combining form are -genesis and -genic.
The former, -genesis, means producing or forming, as in cytogenesis, or cell formation.
The suffix -genic can also mean producing, as in carcinogenic, which means tending to produce cancer.
But sometimes it means produced by or produced in, as in psychogenic, meaning produced by the mind. A psychogenic illness is one caused by mental processes, such as ulcers caused by stress and anxiety.
3.3 kinesi/o, -kinesia, -kinesis
The combining form kinesi/o means movement. Thus, the study of movement is called kinesiology.
A related suffix is -kinesia, which also means movement. It is part of dyskinesia, for example, which means difficult or impaired movement.
Very similar in meaning and application to -kinesia is -kinesis, and the two suffixes are sometimes used interchangeably. For example, both hyperkinesia and hyperkinesis mean hyperactivity or excessive motion.
3.4 leps/o, -lepsy
A relationship to seizures is denoted in medical terms by the combining form leps/o and the suffix -lepsy. You have no doubt heard the term epilepsy, which refers to any of a group of disorders characterized by sudden transient attacks due to disturbances of brain function. Manifestations of epilepsy include loss of consciousness, abnormal behavior, and sensory disturbances. A single episode is called a seizure. The ECG in the accompanying illustration demonstrates the sensory disturbance caused by a seizure.
3.5 log/o, -logy
By now you are thoroughly familiar with the use of the suffix -logy, meaning study of. After all, you are learning terminology, the study of terms! So it will be easy for you to understand and remember that the related combining form log/o means knowledge or words.
While the suffix is much more commonly used, the combining form appears in such terms as logamnesia, which is the inability to remember words.
3.6 lys/o, -lysis
You will recall from Module 3 that -lysis refers to the process of breaking down or destroying and that thrombolysis is the destruction of a clot.
Lysis is also a stand-alone term that means destruction.
Although less commonly used, there is a corresponding combining form, lys/o. It is the basis of the terms lysosome and lysozyme. Lysosomes are particles within cells that contain enzymes that participate in the breakdown of proteins and certain carbohydrates. The term lysozyme refers to the enzyme muramidase.
The term lysin means a substance that destroys. When used as a suffix, -lysin has the same meaning; for example, hemolysin is a specific antibody that destroys red blood cells.
Another related suffix is -lytic. Note that the letter t replaces the letter s in this member of the lysis word part family. This suffix means related to, pertaining to, or capable of lysis. Consider osteolytic, which means pertaining to bone destruction. An osteolytic tumor is one that causes destruction of bone, as seen in this illustration.
3.7 megal/o, -megaly
The word parts that mean large or enlarged are megal/o and -megaly. Earlier in this module you encountered the term megalomania. It is easy to see how delusions of grandeur might be expressed by a term that is based on the combining form for large. Another term with megal/o is megalogastria, meaning abnormally large size or enlargement of the stomach.
In Module 3, you learned to use the suffix -megaly to create hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, enlargement of the liver and the spleen, respectively. Another term with this suffix is cardiomegaly, enlargement of the heart.
3.9 metr/o, -metry, -meter
The combining form metr/o has two distinctly different meanings. One meaning is to measure and is not commonly used in medicine. This meaning is found in the term metronome, which is an instrument to measure intervals of time.
The other meaning of metr/o is uterus or uterine tissue. You will encounter this meaning frequently in such terms as metrodynia (uterine pain), metrorrhexis (rupture of the uterus), and metrorrhagia (non-menstrual bleeding from the uterus).
The suffix -metry refers to the process of measurement and is not used in reference to the uterus. For example, cephalometry is the process of measuring the head.
The related suffix -meter denotes an instrument used to measure. An oximeter, seen in the accompanying illustration, is a photoelectric instrument used to measure the oxygen saturation of the blood.
3.10 phag/o, -phagia, -phagy, -phagic
This group of word parts all relate to eating, swallowing, or ingesting.
A phagocyte, illustrated here, is any cell able to surround, engulf, and ingest particles, including microorganisms. Phagocytes circulate in the blood and are an important part of the body's immune system
The combining form phag/o is also found in phagomania, which means an obsessive preoccupation with eating.
The suffixes -phagia and -phagy mean eating or swallowing. Aerophagia is the act of swallowing air.
The related suffix -phagic means pertaining to swallowing or eating.
3.11 phas/o, -phasia
Speech is denoted in medical terms by the combining form phas/o and the suffix -phasia.
Among the many terms that include the suffix -phasia are dysphasia, speech impairment, and bradyphasia, which means abnormally slow speech.
3.12 plas/o, -plasia
Development and formation are denoted in medical terms by the combining form plas/o and the suffix -plasia.
Hyperplasia is a common term that means excessive development. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), for example, is a condition of excessive development of the prostate gland that frequently accompanies aging in males. There is no cure for BPH, and once prostate growth starts it often continues unless medical therapy is started. There are several different types of therapy for this condition, including surgical removal of the prostate, prostatectomy.
3.13 scop/o, -scope, -scopy
You will recall from Module 3 that -scope and -scopy are related to viewing. The combining form scop/o also relates to viewing.
The suffix -scope refers to an instrument for viewing, and -scopy refers to the process of viewing or examining with a scope. Recall also from Module 3 that the combining form ophthalm/o means eye. An ophthalmoscope, therefore, is an instrument for examining the eye, and ophthalmoscopy is the procedure of examining the eye.
3.15 pleg/o, -plegia, -plegic
Paralysis is denoted in medical terms by the combining form pleg/o and the suffixes -plegia and -plegic.
Hemiplegia is a term that literally means half paralysis and refers to paralysis of one side of the body, one arm and one leg. Paraplegia is the term for paralysis of both legs and the lower portion of the trunk. Quadriplegia means paralysis of all four limbs. All three of these conditions may be caused by spinal injuries.
The suffix -plegic means pertaining to paralysis or one who suffers from paralysis. For example, it would be correct to say, "The hemiplegic patient can stand up briefly, but paraplegics must remain seated."
3.16 schiz/o, schist/o, -schisis
The combining forms schiz/o and schist/o mean split or cleft. For example, schistoglossia means cleft tongue.
Schizophrenia is a group of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in thinking, mood, and behavior. Sufferers may be delusional and have abnormal speech as well. This condition was once thought of as split personality, which helps to explain this term that literally means "split mind."
The corresponding suffix is -schisis, which has the same meaning as the combining forms. Rachischisis means split vertebra and is the term for a congenital condition in which the vertebra does not form completely around the spinal cord, as seen in this illustration. Another term for this condition that may be more familiar to you is spina bifida.
3.17 scler/o, -sclerosis
Another group of word parts is used to express the concept of hardness.
Scler/o means hard and is found in such terms as scleroderma, a disease characterized by hardening or thickening of the skin. It is most commonly seen in middle-aged women and may occur in a localized form or as a systemic condition.
The corresponding suffix is -sclerosis, meaning hardening. It is part of the term arteriosclerosis, hardening of the arteries.
Sclerosis also exists as a stand-alone term that also means hardening.
3.18 plast/o, -plasty
You are already familiar with the suffix -plasty to indicate surgical repair. Recall the terms blepharoplasty and angioplasty, repair of an eyelid and a blood vessel, respectively.
Plast/o is a combining form that may also mean repair. For example, plastic surgery refers to a surgical procedure for the purpose of repair. These procedures may involve the replacement, alteration, or reconstruction of visible parts of the body and are performed to correct either structural or cosmetic defects.
3.19 troph/o, -trophy, -trophic
The combining form troph/o and the suffixes -trophy and -trophic mean nutrition.
Any disorder related to nutrition may be termed a trophopathy, or nutrition disease. Trophoneurosis is a condition of inadequate nutrition of a body part due to the defective function of a nerve.
Atrophy means without nutrition and is a wasting condition that occurs in tissues that do not receive adequate nutrition. Dystrophy refers to poor or inadequate nutrition.
Muscular dystrophy (MD) is a group of inherited diseases characterized by progressive atrophy of muscles without loss of neural tissue. All forms of MD involve an insidious loss of strength and increasing disability. MD may be caused by an inborn error of metabolism.
4.1 albin/o, leuk/o, leuc/o
In this lesson, you will learn some new combining forms and review some familiar ones. We will look first at the combining forms that indicate color.
Albin/o, leuk/o, and sometimes leuc/o are used in medical terms to mean white. Identify which of these combining forms is used in each of the following terms.
albinism: congenital partial or total absence of melanin pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes
leukorrhea: white discharge
leucine: an amino acid produced in protein metabolism
leukocyte: white (blood) cell
4.2 chlor/o
The combining form for green is chlor/o. This word part may be familiar to you from the term chlorophyll, the green pigment that plants use to accomplish photosynthesis.
Chloropia is a vision disorder in which all things appear green. This illustration demonstrates a comparison between normal vision and chloropia.
Chlor/o also has another meaning. It is the combining form for the chemical element chlorine. This element is yellow-green in color, which is no doubt why chlor/o came to mean green. The names of many chemicals and drugs that contain chlorine atoms include this combining form, even though they are only distantly related to the color green.
4.3 cyan/o
The combining form for the color is cyan/o.
A common term that incorporates this word part is cyanosis, which literally means the condition of blue and denotes a bluish discoloration, particularly of the skin and mucous membranes, as seen in the accompanying illustrations. It is caused by a lack of oxygen and the resulting excessive concentration of deoxyhemoglobin in the blood.
Similar terms that have the same meaning as cyanosis are cyanoderma, blue skin, and cyanopathy, which means blue disease.
Can you suggest a term for a vision disorder in which all things appear blue?
4.4 melan/o
A vision disorder in which all things appear blue is called cyanopia.
The combining form melan/o means black and can also refer to melanin, the pigment that gives color to skin, hair, and eyes.
Illustrated here is a melanoma, a potentially deadly form of skin cancer that arises from the pigmented cells, or melanocytes, of the skin. It seems to occur more often in people who have had many sunburns. In the
What is the literal meaning of melanoma?
4.5 erythr/o, xanth/o
Did you guess that the literal meaning of melanoma is black tumor? Yes, it is.
Erythr/o is the combining form for the color red.
Illustrated here is an electron micrograph of erythrocytes, red (blood) cells. These cellular elements of blood are biconcave disks that contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen to the cells. You will learn more about blood cells in Module 7.
The combining form for the color yellow is xanth/o.
Xanthochromia refers to abnormal yellow coloration. This term is often applied to fluids, especially spinal fluid. It may also be applied to mean yellowing of the skin, but xanthoderma is more often used to refer to yellow skin.
4.7 bi/o
Now let's continue learning combining forms and matching them up with suffixes you have learned.
The combining form that means life is bi/o. A biologist is one who studies biology, the science of life.
When bi/o is combined with the suffix -opsy, meaning to view, the resulting term is biopsy, the examination of a sample of life, tissue from a living body. You will recall that surgical pathologists examine surgical specimens for the purpose of diagnosis. In a biopsy, a tissue specimen is surgically removed for this purpose (as the illustration demonstrates). The abbreviation for biopsy is bx.
4.8 cephal/o
You have learned the combining form encephal/o, meaning brain. Related to this word part is cephal/o, meaning head. Perhaps you recall the term cephalometry, measurement of the head, mentioned earlier in this module.
Another term based on this combining form is cephalalgia, meaning headache. Cephalodynia also means headache but is less commonly used
4.9 hist/o
Module 2 introduced you to the study of tissues, histology, and the combining form hist/o, which means tissue. When we link this combining form with the suffix -lysis, the resulting term is histolysis, the breakdown of tissue.
An interesting term with this combining form is histocompatibility. This term refers to the state of being histocompatible, or individuals who share a sufficient number of antigens to allow the acceptance and continued function of tissue transplanted from one to the other. Histocompatibility literally means the state of tissues capable of being together.
4.10 my/o, muscul/o
Some combining forms refer to specific tissues. For example, two that mean muscle or muscle tissue are my/o and muscul/o. The first is part of myocardium, or heart muscle. The myocardium is the middle and thickest layer of the heart wall, composed of special muscle cells that are unique to the heart.
The combining form muscul/o is part of the term musculoskeletal, which means pertaining to the muscles and the skeleton or bones. It is the function of the musculoskeletal structures to produce movement.
4.11 electr/o
Let's review what you have learned about the combining form electr/o, meaning electricity. We have seen this word part used in such terms as electroencephalography and electrocardiogram. It is easy to remember because the combining form and its meaning are so similar.
Let's link this combining form with one meaning muscle to create a term that means the process of making an electrical tracing or recording of the effects of muscle contraction.
electr/o + my/o + -graphy = electromyography
An electromyograph is used for this purpose, and the resulting tracing is called an electromyogram (EMG). This diagnostic technique records the action potentials and evoked potentials of skeletal muscles at rest, during voluntary contractions, and during electrical stimulation.
4.13 nas/o, rhin/o
Earlier in this module you encountered the term rhinitis and learned that the combining form rhin/o means nose. Nas/o also means nose. Rhin/o is more often used in connection with conditions and procedures, whereas nas/o is commonly used in anatomical terms. Consider the following applications of these combining forms:
rhinoplasty: surgical repair of the nose
rhinorrhagia: hemorrhage from the nose, nosebleed
nasal: pertaining to the nose
nasogastric: pertaining to the nose and the stomach
A nasogastric tube, illustrated here, is one that is passed through the nose, down the back of the throat, then into the stomach for the purpose of removing gastric contents or to provide nutrition and medication to patients who have difficulty swallowing.
4.14 pod/o, ped/o
You may recall that Module 1 mentioned ped/o as a combining form with two distinctly different meanings: child and foot.
There is another combining form that also means foot: pod/o.
Podiatry is a health care profession that specializes in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disorders of the feet. One who practices podiatry is called a podiatrist.
4.15 therm/o
Therm/o is the combining form that means heat. The term thermoplegia means heat stroke.
You are familiar with the term thermometer, which is an instrument for measuring heat. Temperature is measured with a thermometer using one of two common scales.
The English system uses the Fahrenheit scale, abbreviated F. On this scale, water freezes at 32° F and boils at 212° F.
The Celsius temperature scale, abbreviated C, is used in the metric system. At one time this scale was called "centigrade," and you may still encounter this term. Each degree on the Celsius scale represents a greater quantity of temperature change than on the Fahrenheit scale. Water freezes at 0° C and boils at 100° C.
Body temperatures vary during the day, being lowest in the morning and highest in the evening, but the average normal body temperature taken orally is 98.6° F, which is equal to 37° C.
Earlier in this module you learned the combining form pyr/o, meaning fire. A related combining form, pyrex/o, means fever, an abnormally high body temperature. Terms that mean fever include pyrexia, the condition of fever, and hyperthermia, excessive heat.
5.1 -therapy, therapeut/o
In this final lesson of the module, you will learn combining forms that relate to the treatment of disease. The abbreviation for treatment is tx. Another term that means treatment is therapy.
The related suffix -therapy also means treatment. For example, psychotherapy means mind treatment and is the term for the treatment of mental and behavioral disorders.
The combining form that means treatment or therapy is therapeut/o. It is part of the term therapeutic, which means pertaining to therapy. A therapeutic diet or exercise program, for instance, would be a regimen designed to treat a health problem. Therapeutic radiology is another term for radiation oncology. You will recall from Module 2 that this term means the treatment of tumors using radiation.
5.2 chem/o
In addition to radiation therapy, oncologists may treat tumors using surgery or chemical agents.
Recall from Module 3 that mastectomy and lumpectomy are surgical procedures to remove breasts or breast lumps as therapy for breast cancer.
Chemotherapy refers to the use of chemical agents to treat disease. Because most drugs are chemicals, almost any medication might technically be considered chemotherapy, but the term is usually applied to cancer treatment and not to treatment for most other conditions. The combining form chem/o means chemical.
5.3 pharmaceut/o, pharmac/o
Recall that in Module 2 you learned that pharmaceut/o and pharmac/o are combining forms that mean medicine or drug.
Some medications have the potential for abuse or serious side effects, or need to be monitored by a physician to ensure patient safety. These drugs cannot be sold without a physician's order. When a physician orders a medication for a patient this order is called a prescription, abbreviated Rx. The prescription must be filled at a pharmacy, a place where drugs are prepared and dispensed by a licensed health professional, a pharmacist.
Other medications are designed to treat relatively common problems that can be successfully identified and treated without the help of a physician. These include such relatively safe and common medications as antacids, aspirin, and laxatives that you can purchase at a pharmacy, or even a grocery store, without a prescription. These products are called over-the-counter drugs, abbreviated OTC.
5.4 algesi/o
Among the conditions that might be treated with medications are those associated with pain.
The combining form that means pain is algesi/o. The prefix an- means without. If we combine these two word parts and add the suffix -ic, meaning pertaining to, the result is analgesic, which means pertaining to without pain.
Analgesic can be used as a noun to designate a pain-relieving drug. For example, it would be correct to say, "Aspirin is an analgesic."
It is also correct to use this term as an adjective, saying perhaps, "These green cap
5.5 esthesi/o
Esthesi/o means sensation or feeling. You encountered this combining form in Module 2 when you learned about the specialty of anesthesiology, the study and practice of eliminating sensation during surgery.
An anesthetic agent is one that prevents sensation. Some anesthetics are designed for local use, for example, to numb an area for dental work or to have stitches placed to close a wound. Other anesthetics are classed as general anesthetics. These are gases administered via inhalation to cause unconsciousness and freedom from sensation during major surgical procedures.
If you are familiar with parts of speech, you will note in the preceding paragraph that anesthetic, like analgesic, is used both as a noun and as an adjective.
5.6 narc/o
Narc/o is a combining form that means sleep or stupor. Therefore, narcotic refers to a drug that tends to produce sleep or stupor.
The term narcotic can be confusing because it is used in different ways without precision. At one time it was used as a synonym for morphine and other powerful analgesics derived from the opium plant because many of these drugs also induce sleep. All of them can lead to physical dependence.
According to law, narcotics are not only these sleep-inducing drugs, but also many other substances that can lead to physical dependence such as cocaine, marijuana, and LSD.
Controlled substances are drugs with a high potential for abuse and misuse, including all of those classed as narcotics. Stocks of these medications must be kept in a locked container and must be counted daily; whenever a controlled medication is given in a hospital or clinic, the details must be listed on special forms and signed by the person who administers the drug. The use of these drugs is monitored by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and physicians who prescribe them must hold a DEA license.
5.7 tox/o, toxic/o
The combining forms tox/o and toxic/o mean poison. Toxic means pertaining to poison. A toxic substance is one that poisons, and toxin is a term meaning toxic substance.
Toxicology is the study of poisons. What would you call a person whose field of study is toxicology?
5.8 Toxicologis
Of course! A toxicologist is one whose field of study is poisons.
A dose that exceeds the therapeutic quantity of a medication is termed an overdose. Most drugs, even simple and safe medications such as aspirin, can be toxic in large quantities. An overdose of a narcotic causes respiratory depression, a life-threatening effect.
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